1704 November 20th: Pope Clement XI
Condemned Chinese rites, outlawed further discussion
Even though Emperor Kang-xi and many Chinese Christians explicitly claimed that ancestral veneration and other Confucian practices were civil in nature, on 20th November 1704, Pope Clement XI (教宗克勉十一世, papacy 1700–1721) issued the anti-rites decree, Cum Deus Optimus, where he condemned the Chinese rites and Confucian rituals and outlawed any further discussion on the matter.
Only Lord of Heaven (天主) was accepted
The decree also forbade the use of 天 (Pronunciation in Chinese: Tian; Meaning: Heaven) and 上帝 (Pronunciation in Chinese: Shang-di; Meaning: Lord Above) when referring to God. The only term that can be used is 天主 (pronunciation in Chinese: Tian-zhu; Meaning: Lord of Heaven).
Papal Legate was sent to update Emperor Kang-xi
In 1705, the Pope sent Papal Legate Carlo Tommaso (铎罗, 1668–1710) to Emperor Kang-xi, informing him of this decision; the Papal Legate was also to forbid missionaries from obeying the emperor’s orders.
Official and public condemnation ten years later
Ten years later, on 19th March 1715, Pope Clement XI took one step further and issued a Papal Bull — a public decree — that officially condemned Chinese rites and Confucian rituals.
1706 July: Imperial permits
First Papal Legate met with Emperor Kang-xi
Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon was the Papal Legate (圣座特使) sent Pope Clement XI to China. On 4th December 1705, he arrived in Beijing. In addition to providing for the needs of the missions and ensuring harmony between the different Orders, he was to enforce the Vatican's decision to stop the toleration of the Chinese Rites amongst the native converts — namely, stop the worship rituals for Confucius and ancestors, and prevent the using of 天 (Pronunciation in Chinese: Tian; Meaning: Heaven) and 上帝 (Pronunciation in Chinese: Shang-di; Meaning: Lord Above) when referencing the Christian God.
In July 1706, Tournon met with Emperor Kang-xi in the royal retreat city of Chengde (承德). He was warmly received until it became clear that he had come to deliver Pope Clement XI’s anti-Rites decree, Cum Deus optimus, issued on 20th November 1704. The emperor was also not pleased that Tournon did not know the Chinese language, for it meant that he did not understand the Chinese culture and, therefore, the meaning and the significance of the Rites.
Missionaries needed imperial permits to stay in China
After the meeting with Tournon, Emperor Kang-xi issued a decree ordering that all missionaries needed an imperial permit to stay in China. To obtain this permit, the missionaries would have to pledge to follow the Directives of Matteo Ricci (利玛窦規矩), which was Father Ricci's more tolerant approach toward Chinese traditions and rituals.
Tournon threatened to ex-communicate the Jesuits
On 25th January 1707, while in Nanjing, Tournon issued a decree obliging all missionaries to abolish the Rites or face ex-communication. With this, Emperor Kang-xi expelled him to Macau, where he died in 1710.
The emperor further sent Jesuit missionaries, such as Father Joseph-Antoine Provana (艾若瑟, 1662–1720), to Rome to protest against the decree and explain China’s position on the matter.
Jesuits continued policy of tolerance and stayed in China
Most of the Jesuit missionaries chose to ignore the decision made by the Congregation of Rites. They continued the policy of tolerance, as they believed excessive rules would be a deterrent in converting the populace.
1715 March 19th: Pope Clement XI
Issued Papal Bull condemning the Chinese rites
Pope Clement XI教宗克勉十一世 [Zane Archives]
On 20th November 1704, Pope Clement XI (教宗克勉十一世, papacy 1700–1721) issued the anti-rites decree, Cum Deus optimus. He condemned the Chinese rites and Confucian rituals and outlawed any further discussion on the matter. On 19th March 1715, he took one step further and issued a Papal Bull, a public decree, that officially condemned Chinese ritual practices. As per the papal bull, "Pope Clement XI wishes to make the following facts permanently known to all the people in the world …” There are five sections.
Only accepted term for God was 天主 (Lord of Heaven)
Section I of the Papal Bull:
The West refers to God as the creator of the Heavens, Earth, and all else in the universe. Since the word God does not sound right in the Chinese language, the Westerners in China and Chinese converts to Catholicism must refer to God as “Lord of Heaven (Tian-zhu).” On this note, antiquated terms including “Heaven (Tian)” and “Shang-di (Emperor Above)” are now forbidden, for they are blasphemous. The Tablet with the Chinese words “Reverence for Heaven” must be immediately removed from all Catholic Churches.
Confucius and ancestral worship was prohibited
Section II of the Papal Bull:
The spring and autumn worship of the philosopher who went by the name Confucius is prohibited; the worshipping of ancestors is also prohibited amongst Catholic practitioners, for this is an act of disloyalty to the one true God. Catholic converts are not even allowed to appear in the ritual as bystanders, for that is considered as participating in the act.
Worship in Confucian Temples was prohibited
Section III of the Papal Bull:
Chinese officials in the government, if they have converted to Catholicism, are not allowed to worship in Confucius temples on the first and fifteenth days of each month. The same prohibition is applicable Chinese Catholics who have recently passed their Imperial Examinations.
Ancestral worship in family temples was prohibited
Section IV of the Papal Bull:
Chinese Catholics are not allowed to worship ancestors in their family temples.
Ancestral worship in any place was prohibited
Section V of the Papal Bull:
Chinese Catholics are not allowed to perform the ritual of ancestor worship, even at funerals or in the cemetery. They are not allowed to do so even if in the company of non-Christians, for this ritual is deemed as a Chinese pagan practice regardless of circumstance.
The Papal Bull continued, “Despite the above decisions, I have made it clear that other Chinese customs and traditions that can in no way be interpreted as Chinese pagan in nature should be allowed to continue among Chinese converts. The way the Chinese manage their households or govern their country should by no means be interfered with. As to exactly what customs should or should not be allowed to continue, the Papal Legate in China will make the necessary decisions. In the absence of the Papal Legate, the responsibility of making such decisions should rest with the head of the China mission and the Bishop of China. In short, customs and traditions that are not contradictory to Roman Catholicism will be allowed, while those that are clearly contradictory to it will not be tolerated under any circumstances.”
1719: Joseph-Antoine Provana (艾若瑟)
Built a magnificent church in Kaifeng
Father Joseph-Antoine Provana (1662–1720) was an Italian Jesuit.
From 1699 to 1701, he built a church in Kaifeng that matched the grandeur and reputation of the ancient capital city. The missionaries used it until their expulsion in 1724.
The building was subsequently converted, as described by Father Antoine Gaubil (宋君荣, 1689–1759), “into a temple of idols.”
Emperor Kang-xi’s envoy to Pope Clement XI
In 1719, Father Provana served as an envoy from Emperor Kang-xi (reign 1661–1722) to Pope Clement XI (教宗克勉十一世, papacy 1700–1721) to explain China’s position and seek agreement over the Chinese Rites Controversy.
He passed away on his journey back to China.
1720 December: Second Papal Legate in China
In 1719, Carlo Ambrogio Mezzabarba (1685–1741) was appointed by Pope Clement XI as second Papal Legate to settle the Chinese Rites Controversy with Beijing. From late December of 1720 to early February of 1721, he was received numerous times by Emperor Kang-xi (康熙大帝), who had hoped to make Mezzabarba understand China’s position and then explain it directly to the Pope. Instead, however, Mazzabarba did nothing but defend the 1715 Papal Bull.
In May 1721, he reached Macao. On 4th November, he issued a pastoral instruction to the missionaries, with specific instruction not to have it translated into Chinese — probably a sign that he had no intention of further seeking Chinese opinion or suspending the 1715 decree.
On 9th December, he departed China with the remains of Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon, the first Papal Legate to China who passed away after being expelled to Macau, and returned back to Europe.